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1. Bhimbetka Cupules
2. Bhimbetka Petroglyphs

The Bhimbetka and Daraki-Chattan cupoles are the oldest pieces of prehistoric art ever discovered and have been dated to around 700,000 BC, almost four times older than the Blombos Cave art. They were discovered in two ancient quartzite caves in the Madhya Pradesh region of central India. Cupules (Fig. 1) are the earliest surviving rock art we know about in the world, but this does not necessarily make them the first rock art produced. The oldest rock art we know about in every continent are linear grooves and cupules, especially the latter.

A chemist by training, Achaya was a polymath scholar who wrote on a wide variety of topics from technical texts on oil and oilseeds to the atharva veda. This volume covers the history of food in India based on a fascinatingly wide range of evidence. Among the earliest are the stone age cave paintings at bhimbetka - about 30,000 years ago - that show hunting of boar and even elephant, and also what looks like women grinding spices. In the bronze and iron age, we have archaeological evidence from harappan times - pulses such as the pea and the chAnA or chick pea is found from middle Harappan site at Kalibangan and the late Harappan area at Daimabad in North Maharashtra.

Other ancient evidence cited includes clay tablet records from Mesopotamia (Sumer) dating to 2300 BC, which refer to a type of oilseed as se-gis-i, which is thought to be the sesame, which was brought in via trade routes from India. Achaya, a noted sanskrit scholar who has also written a critical analysis of the atharva veda, now turns to the vedic texts. While finding that some of the food evidence in the vedas are hard to rely on, there is no doubt that cow sacrifice was a common practice; usually barren cows would be 'destined for the gods' (p.55); clearly the prasAda would be consumed by the worshipper. This is a tradition that stopped a few centuries after Buddha. The prohibition for beef, as is well known today, is not a part of whatever may be 'sanAtan' in our 'dharma'.

Later texts like the mahAbhArata are cited for a wide range of facts - e.g. There was a systematic cultivation of beehives and procedures (laid out for apiaries) in order to extract honey.

In South India, the late sangam texts (6th c.AD) mention the dosai, but not the idli, which in its present form, is suggested to be an import from Indonesia with which wide trade links existed since the seventh cnetury. Possibly a cook in a king's kitchen may have brought back the idea of fermentation and steaming. A Kannada text from 920 Ad refers to 'iddalige'. In the five volume encyclopedic compendium, mAnasollAsa, composed in sanksrit by the Chalukyan king Somadeva, son of Vikramaditya Chola, c.1130 AD, we find a reference to a fried urad ball called 'iddarika' rubbing shoulders with accounts of how to.

Food Rituals Other chapters deal with fascinating details - such as the ritual use of food, which always puzzled me as a child growing up in a brahmin household - the logic of what is allowed, and what is debarred always baffled me. Acchaya also mentions some rules for these distinctions - such as the separation between kaccha and pucca foods - mostly kacchA food (uncooked food, non-cereals or fruits) are permitted on fast days - originated for observing various hindu days such as Rama Navami, Shivaratri, or ekAdashis. A chapter deals with Mughal food traditions, It is interesting to note that even a prototypical hindu food like khichri, eaten on observation days, also came from the persian-arabic world, as did the quintessential indian sweetmeat of jalebi (zalabiya in Arabic). This volume is a more elaborate and scholarly text, but a short and readable account may also be found in by Achaya, written a couple of years later to simplify the account presented here. The following excerpts from two articles that appeared in the Hindu covers a broad sweep through the text. What I like about this scholarly work is how knowing the history of food can reduce the vehemence with which some religious attitudes are maintained. Well it may not in practice, but at least it ought to.

Extensive Summary by D. Balasubramaniam The following is based on two articles titled 'Changes in the Indian menu over the ages', published by D. Balasubramanian in the Hindu in 2004 -It was two years ago that we lost the eminent food scientist Dr. His books - Indian Food, A Historical Companion, The Food Industries of British India, and A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (all published by Oxford University Press, India) - are a scholarly fund of the history and development of India cuisine.

Idlis: Indonesian import? They educate as they enlighten and entertain, and occasionally shock us. For example, he points out authoritatively that while Dosai and Vadai have a hoary two-thousand-year history in Tamil country, Idli is a foreign import. The earliest reference to something of a precursor to Idli occurs in the Kannada writing of Sivakotyacharya in 920 AD. this work mentions 'iddalige', which may be the origin of idli; but this was made from urad dhal batter only. The subsequent Sanskrit Manasollasa (1130 AD) has 'iddarika', but again made from urad dhal flour only.

Tamil apparently only first mentions 'itali' in the 17th century. All these references, Achaya notes, leave out three key aspects of idlis: 'the use of rice grits along with urad dhal; the long fermentation of the mix; and the steaming of the batter to fluffiness.' Indeed, the Chinese chronicler Xuang Zang (7th century AD) categorically stated that there were no steaming vessels in India. Achaya writes that the cooks who accompanied the Hindu Kings of Indonesia between 800-1200 AD, brought fermentation and steaming methods and their dish Kedli to South India ( Thirai Kadal Odiyum Tinpandam Thedu!) Happily enough, ancient Indian literature left a lot of information on extant vegetables, pulses, meat, spices, fruits, cooking methods, and even an occasional recipe or two.

The history of Indian cuisine can be divided into several stages or periods. The earliest period is before 1500 BC or the Vedic period. The Harappan civilization was known to have rice, barley, wheat, oat, amaranths, jowar, sesame, mustard, chickpeas, masoor, mung and horsegram (kulti, ulavulu), dates, pomegranates, and perhaps bananas. Bones of numerous animals attest to meat (and fish) eating. The large granaries of Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Lothal attest to a sophisticated, aerated, rodent-free storage practice. But, as of date, no recipe has been discovered so that we do not know what a typical Indus valley supper menu contained. Vedic period We are more fortunate when we turn to the Vedic period (approximately 1700 BC).

The Rig Veda mentions rice, cereals and pulses (masha (urad), mudga (moong) and masura (masoor)) green leafy vegetables (spinach), melons, pumpkins and gourds and in particular lotus stem, cucumber, bottle-gourd, water chestnut, bitter gourd (karavella), radish, brinjal, some aquatic plants (avaka, andika), and fruits such as mangoes, oranges and grapes. Spices such as coriander, turmeric, pepper, cumin, asafoetida, cloves, sesame and mustard were well known, and at least the first four ones are thought to be Indian in origin. Meat eating was prevalent.

Pigs, boar, deer, bovines and peacocks were eaten, though chicken (which, though originated in India) was not that desirable. They seem to have been forbidden or discouraged from eating eggs of any kind and in any manner. Turning to Mahabharata, a graphic description of cooking at a picnic has been provided on roasting large pieces of meat on spits, cooked with tamarind, pomegranates and spices with ghee and fragrant leaves. King Yudishtira is said to have fed 10,000 scholars with pork and venison, besides preparation of rice and milk in ghee and honey with fruits and roots (Payasam). It was after this time that a change in our food habits occurred.

The Dharma Sutras, Manusmriti and related texts of 500-300 BC began forbidding and proscribing food items based on their `temper' (sattvik - peaceful and ascetic, rajasik medium, energetic that can be either positive or negative, and tamasic or coarse, rough and not all that nice), and prohibiting as many as 54 items (in particular a variety of animals) from the `proper' kitchen. The teachings of Buddhism and Jainism against meat eating had taken hold by this time, and a turn towards preferential vegetarianism began to be expressed in Hindu texts as well. These, plus the diktats on satvik, rajasic, and tamasic practices changed the face of Indian gastronomy already around 300 BC.

Medieval Foods By the time we reach the Middle Ages (1000-1200 AD), we find several texts and commentaries across the country that talk about culinary habits of local people and their kings. A meal was now expected to have six components of quality and taste: - madhura (sweet) - amla (sour) - lavana (salty) - kata (pungent) - tikta (bitter) - kasaya (astringent) These appear earlier, in Sushruta (around 600 AD). Shrenika's feast The Bhavissayattakaha (of AD 1000) describes the royal meal of King Shrenika thus. First were served fruits that could be chewed (grape, pomegranate, ber), then fruits to be sucked (sugarcane, oranges, mangoes). Food that could be licked came next and in the fourth course came solid sweet items such as sevaka, modaka and phenaka. Rice followed next and the sixth was of broths.

Curd preparation made the seventh course and the eighth ended with thickened milk flavoured with saffron. Items such as parpata (papad) and vataka (vadam) were common. Foods from the Portuguese The extant vegetables ranged pretty much as before - cucumber, brinjal, snake gourd and other gourds, yams, French beans and cluster beans, leafy greens, onions and garlic, coconut, cowpea, sweet potato (?) and such.

It was with the entry of the Portuguese that a floodgate of new vegetables entered the Indian land and kitchens. They brought potato, tomato, tapioca, groundnuts, corn, papaya, pineapple, guava, avocado, rajma (kidney bean), cashew, sapota (chiku), and of course capsicum and chilli in all its forms (and I felt bad hearing about idli importation!). Perhaps the cauliflower and cabbage came from Europe or Latin America too, but certainly a particular form of cottage cheese did come from the Portuguese. It was this that became the chhana of Bengal and Orissa - the base for many Bengali sweets (Sandesh in its modern form, and of course inventions called Rasogolla, Khirmohan, Mouchak, Pantua, Sitabhog, Chhena Puda, and so forth).

The Portuguese word for grain, grao, was taken up to describe Indian pulses as Bengal gram, horse gram and other grams. While the Arabs and Central Asians brought bajra, jowar, lobia and forms of bread (roti) into India, the Portuguese enriched Indian food through their diverse introductions. When we eat Aloo-poori, we partake of the richness of the produce of people from West Asia and Latin America! Mughal influence The next major influence on Indian cuisine came with the Mughals, starting with Babar who came in 1526 to stay but four years here. While he remained aloof to the Indian supper-tables, his son Humayun took to them easier and also introduced a few new items to it. It is with Akbar, and through the book Ain-i-Akbari, that we know of many new dishes, ovens and recipes that came into India through the Mughal court, including dishes such as: - khichri - kabab - palak-sag - do-pyaza - biryani - dumpukht - pilaf - naan - haleem - tandoori - harisa - chapati (phulka) - qutab (samosa) - khushka - yakhni AM: The samosa is believed to have originated in C. Asia in the 10th c.

It is a popular snack across Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, where it is known as samsa. It finds mention in the work of the Iranian historian (d.1077). It arrived in India around 13th c. Most likely through silk route traders. From: Amir Khusrao, prolific poet of Delhi royalty, observed in 1300 that the royal set seemed partial to the 'samosa prepared from meat, ghee, onion and so on'. In 1334, the renowned traveller Ibn Battuta wrote about the sambusak: 'minced meat cooked with almonds, pistachios, onions and spices placed inside a thin envelop of wheat and deep-fried in ghee'.

And the samosa obtained a royal stamp with its inclusion in the Ain-i-Akbari which declared that among dishes cooked with wheat there is the qutab, 'which the people of Hind called the sanbusa'. Some things seem to have remain unchanged from the days of Akbar: The delicious cold kulfi was made at court by freezing a mixture of khoa, pista nuts and zafran essence in a metal cone after sealing the open top with dough. (The only modification today is to use aluminium or plastic cones with their own caps). Jahangir, unlike his father, enjoyed meat, but will be remembered for popularizing falooda (a jelly made from boiled wheat strainings mixed with fruit juices and cream). With the Mughal introduction of the varieties of bread, meat dishes (particularly of fowl) and the ovens to make them, and their methods to make ice locally, the cuisine of much of North India transformed forever. The Chinese had their influence too, though not to the extent of the Portuguese and the Moghuls.

Mulberry, blackberry and the litchi fruit came to us through them. Of Chinese origin are also the sweet cherry and the peach. China also developed the leafy variety of Brassica juncea (rai), which we in India use as a vegetable.

Bhimbetka Cupules

Camphor is a Chinese import and introduction (it is even today called chinakarpura). The soybean was imported from China into India in 1908 for cultivation, though it caught on widely only after the U.S. Variety was introduced in 1970s. And the most precious introduction of China to India (and to the world at large) is of course their cha or teh, namely tea. Just imagine what we do first thing in the morning - we pay obeisance to the Arabs with a cup of coffee (they brought it to us in the 1600s) or to the Chinese with our steaming cuppa.

British: meager food imports Compared to this cornucopia, the British brought us little in terms of food. Indeed most of the food exchange went the other way; one of the most popular takeout food in britain today is curry; going by spices sold, Indian food is also in British homes. Local varieties of apple are recorded to have occured in Kashmir (called amri, tarehli and maharaji), and Dalhara in 1100 AD talked about a 'ber as big as a fist and very sweet, grown in North Kashmir', which is likely an apple. But it was the colourful Britisher Frederick 'Pahari' Wilson who established a flourishing apple farm in Garhwal, where they grow red and juicy Wilson apples to this day. Also, we must express our gratitude to the American Mr. Stokes, who settled in Kotgarh near Simla in the 1920s and started apple orchards there, and helped in the proper grading, packing and marketing of the fruit.

The two varieties he introduced, called `Delicious', have now become the major Indian apple varieties, making the Himachal apple growers happy and more prosperous than before. He married a local girl and settled down.

His descendants Smt. Vidya Stokes (politician) and Dr.

Bhimbetka Petroglyphs

Vijay Stokes (scientist) are well known. Though Australian apples are increasingly found in the Indian market, it is still the Delicious that rules the roost. Next time you bite into an Indian apple, you are celebrating Indo-American amity! Today's India: Not mostly vegetarian Contrary to popular belief, India is not a predominantly vegetarian country. But a quarter of the population is reckoned, based on census data, to be vegetarian. Gujarat: 69 per cent is vegetarian, Rajasthan: 60 per cent Punjab-Haryana: 54 per cent Uttar Pradesh: 50 per cent Madhya Pradesh: 45 per cent Karnataka: 34 per cent, Maharashtra: 30 per cent Tamil Nadu: 21 per cent Andhra Pradesh: 16 per cent Assam: 15 per cent Kerala, Orissa and West Bengal: 6 per cent vegetarian While part of this vegetarianism is economic, a more compelling force is ethical and even religious. Jains avoid meat totally while many Buddhists in India are vegetarians.

Brahmins, Saivite non-Brahmins of South India and several Vaishnavite sects across the country avoid meat. Interestingly though Brahmins of East India, Kashmir and the Saraswats of the Southwest are allowed fish and some meat. Even among meat-eaters, beef was and is taboo. This practice seems to be at least 2000 years old (Achaya quotes DD Kosambi, who quotes the Vedic sage Yagnavalkya as preferring it. Vasishta, Gautama, Apasthamba and Baudhayana, in their Sutras (ca. 300 BC) prohibit killing cows and oxen and eating beef. It had become prevalent by 1100 AD across India, since Al-Biruni wrote that while beef eating was prevalent earlier, it was not allowed later.

Achaya gives economic, ethical and respect for its use as reasons. Emperor Humayun (16th century) is quoted as saying 'beef is not a food fit for the devout' and avoided it. Akbar too was similarly respectful. And while Tamils of the Sangam period relished beef (Perumpanooru describes it), it became taboo or discouraged after the advent of people from elsewhere. As a result, much of India and certainly many Hindu communities avoid beef eating.